01 · Explore
The First World War and its Aftermath
The First World War (1914-1918) created a new economic and political situation in India, leading to widespread hardship and resentment against British rule.
To finance the war, the British government increased defence expenditure, which was funded by war loans and increased taxation. Customs duties were raised and income tax was introduced for the first time. Between 1913 and 1918, prices of essential goods doubled, making life extremely difficult for common people.
In rural areas, the colonial state used forced recruitment to supply soldiers for the war, causing deep-seated anger. This misery was compounded in 1918-19 and 1920-21 when crops failed in many parts of India, leading to acute food shortages. Simultaneously, an influenza epidemic broke out.
According to the 1921 census, approximately 12 to 13 million people died due to famines and the epidemic. People hoped their hardships would end after the war, but the colonial government offered no relief, setting the stage for a new phase of the national struggle.
| Factor | Impact on Indians |
|---|---|
| Economic | Doubling of prices (1913-18), introduction of income tax, and high customs duties. |
| Social | Forced recruitment into the army and loss of 12-13 million lives to famine/epidemic (1921 Census). |
| Agricultural | Crop failures in 1918-19 and 1920-21 leading to acute food shortages. |
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How did the British government finance the increased defence expenditure during World War I?
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02 · Explore
The Idea of Satyagraha
Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in January 1915, introducing a novel method of mass agitation known as Satyagraha.
Satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth. Gandhiji argued that if the cause was true and the struggle was against injustice, physical force was not necessary. A satyagrahi could win the battle through non-violence by appealing to the conscience of the oppressor.
Instead of being forced to accept the truth through violence, oppressors were to be persuaded to see the truth. Gandhiji believed this 'dharma' of non-violence could unite all Indians. He successfully tested this method in local movements in Champaran (1917) for plantation workers, Kheda (1918) for peasants, and Ahmedabad (1918) for cotton mill workers.
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Where did Gandhiji first successfully use Satyagraha before returning to India?
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03 · Explore
The Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh
In 1919, the British government passed the Rowlatt Act, leading to nationwide protests and a tragic massacre in Amritsar.
The Rowlatt Act was passed hurriedly by the Imperial Legislative Council despite united Indian opposition. It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed the detention of political prisoners without trial for two years. Gandhiji launched a 'hartal' on 6 April 1919 in protest.
On 13 April 1919, the infamous Jallianwala Bagh massacre occurred. A large crowd had gathered in an enclosed ground in Amritsar; some to protest and others for the Baisakhi fair. General Dyer entered, blocked the exits, and opened fire, killing hundreds. His stated aim was to 'produce a moral effect' and strike terror into the minds of satyagrahis.
The massacre led to widespread strikes and clashes. The government responded with brutal repression, forcing satyagrahis to crawl on streets and rub their noses on the ground. Seeing the violence, Gandhiji called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha movement.
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What was the most repressive feature of the Rowlatt Act of 1919?
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04 · Explore
Why Non-Cooperation?
Gandhiji believed that British rule in India survived only because of the cooperation of Indians.
In his book 'Hind Swaraj' (1909), Gandhiji declared that if Indians refused to cooperate, British rule would collapse within a year. He proposed a staged movement beginning with the surrender of government titles, followed by a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts, schools, and foreign goods.
To make the movement broad-based, Gandhiji sought to unite Hindus and Muslims by taking up the Khilafat issue. The Khilafat movement was formed to defend the temporal powers of the Ottoman Emperor (the Khalifa). At the Nagpur Congress session in December 1920, the Non-Cooperation programme was formally adopted.
Gandhiji proposed further civil disobedience if the government used repression. Boycott and swadeshi were methods intended to strengthen the struggle; they did not guarantee immediate swaraj. The movement was withdrawn after the violence at Chauri Chaura in February 1922 because Gandhiji wanted a non-violent struggle.
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What was the significance of the Nagpur Congress session of 1920?
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05 · Explore
Differing Strands within the Movement
The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921, but different social groups interpreted 'Swaraj' in their own ways.
In towns, the movement was led by the middle class. Thousands of students left schools, and lawyers gave up practice. Foreign cloth was boycotted and burnt in bonfires; imports of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, dropping from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore in value.
In the countryside, the movement took different forms. In Awadh, Baba Ramchandra led peasants against high rents and 'begar' (forced unpaid labour). In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, Alluri Sitaram Raju led a militant guerrilla movement against forest restrictions, inspired by Gandhiji but believing that force was necessary for liberation.
Plantation workers in Assam interpreted Swaraj as the right to move freely. Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, they were rarely allowed to leave tea gardens. Thousands defied authorities to head home, though many were caught and beaten by police during transport strikes.
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Why did the Non-Cooperation movement slow down in cities?
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Who was Alluri Sitaram Raju?
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