01 · Explore
The Emergence of Indian Sociology
Sociology is a relatively young discipline in India, with formal university teaching beginning in 1919 at the University of Bombay.
While interest in sociological thinking in India is over a century old, the formal institutionalisation of the subject occurred in the early 20th century. Following Bombay, universities in Calcutta and Lucknow established programmes in the 1920s. The pioneers faced a unique challenge: adapting a Western discipline, which emerged to explain European modernity, to a colonial context.
The Indian context raised specific questions. For instance, if Western social anthropology focused on 'primitive' cultures, how would it apply to India, an ancient civilisation that also contained tribal societies? Pioneers had to formulate new questions rather than using readymade Western answers, often beginning their careers in the field by accident.
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When and where did formal university teaching of sociology begin in India?
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02 · Explore
The Accidental Pioneers: Iyer and Roy
L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer and Sarat Chandra Roy were self-taught scholars who laid the groundwork for Indian anthropology.
L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer (1861-1937) began as a clerk and teacher. In 1902, he was asked by the Dewan of Cochin to assist with an ethnographic survey. Working voluntarily on weekends, he became a globally recognised scholar, eventually helping set up the first post-graduate anthropology department at the University of Calcutta in 1917.
Sarat Chandra Roy (1871-1942) was a lawyer who moved to Ranchi in 1898. His work as a court interpreter required him to understand tribal customs and laws. This led to intensive fieldwork and monographs on the Oraon, Mundas, and Kharias. In 1922, he founded 'Man in India', the first journal of its kind in the country.
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What led Sarat Chandra Roy to study tribal cultures in Ranchi?
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03 · Explore
G.S. Ghurye: The Institutional Founder
G.S. Ghurye is considered the founder of institutionalised sociology in India, heading the Bombay University department for 35 years.
Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1893-1983) established the Indian Sociological Society in 1951 and its journal, the Sociological Bulletin. He was deeply influenced by diffusionism and Orientalist scholarship. His department at Bombay was the first to successfully implement the active combining of teaching and research within the same institution.
Ghurye's department was also the first to successfully implement the merger of social anthropology and sociology into a composite discipline. He was instrumental in training the first generation of Indian sociologists, ensuring the discipline took root in the Indian academic soil during and after the colonial era. His work was prolific, covering themes like kinship, family, religion, and cities.
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Which professional body and journal did G.S. Ghurye found?
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04 · Explore
The Debate on Tribal Identity
A major contribution of Ghurye was his stance on the place of tribal societies within Indian civilization.
In the 1930s, British administrator-anthropologists argued that tribes were 'primitive' groups distinct from Hindus and needed state protection to avoid cultural degradation. They feared contact with mainstream society would lead to exploitation. This 'protectionist' view suggested keeping tribes in isolated 'museums' of culture.
Ghurye, representing the nationalist view, disagreed. He characterised tribes as 'backward Hindus' rather than distinct cultural groups. He argued that tribes had been in constant interaction with Hinduism for centuries and were simply at a different stage of assimilation. He believed their problems were common to all downtrodden sections of Indian society and were part of the difficulties of development.
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How did Ghurye's view of tribes differ from British 'protectionists'?
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05 · Explore
Ghurye on Caste and Race
Ghurye provided a critical analysis of the relationship between race and the caste system.
Herbert Risley had argued that caste originated in race, with higher castes representing 'Aryan' types and lower castes representing 'non-Aryan' aboriginals. He used anthropometry to support this, relying on average measurements for the length of the nose, size of the cranium, and the circumference of the skull. Ghurye critiqued this, noting that while it might be broadly true for Northern India, measurements in other regions showed significant mixing.
Ghurye concluded that 'racial purity' was only preserved in 'Hindustan proper' (North India). In the rest of the country, the practice of endogamy (marrying within the caste) was introduced to groups that were already racially varied. This challenged the simplistic racial explanation of the caste hierarchy.
| Feature of Caste | Description |
|---|---|
| Segmental Division | Society is divided into closed, mutually exclusive compartments decided by birth. |
| Hierarchy | Every caste is strictly unequal; each is either higher or lower than others. |
| Social Restrictions | Rules regarding social interaction and sharing of food based on purity and pollution. |
| Differential Rights | Different castes have different religious and secular rights and duties. |
| Occupational Choice | Occupations are hereditary and restricted by caste membership. |
| Endogamy | Strict rules requiring marriage only within one's own caste group. |
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What are the six features of caste defined by Ghurye?
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06 · Explore
D.P. Mukerji on Tradition and Change
Dhurjati Prasad Mukerji (1894-1961) emphasized that Indian sociology must be rooted in social tradition.
D.P. Mukerji argued that an Indian sociologist must first be an Indian, sharing in the folk-ways and traditions to understand the social system. He noted that the Sanskrit equivalents for tradition are parampara (succession) or aitihya (derived from the same root as itihas or history). For him, tradition was a 'living tradition' that adapts to the present while maintaining links to the past.
He identified three principles of change in Indian tradition: Shruti, Smriti, and Anubhava. Anubhava, or personal experience, is the revolutionary principle. Mukerji emphasized that this was true not only of Hindu culture but also of Indian Islam, where Sufis stressed love and experience (anubhava and prem) over holy texts to bring about change. In the Indian context, personal experience often flowers into collective movements like the Bhakti movement.
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What did D.P. Mukerji mean by a 'living tradition'?
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07 · Explore
A.R. Desai and the Myth of the Welfare State
A.R. Desai (1915-1994) applied a Marxist perspective to critique the modern capitalist state.
Desai's most famous work, 'The Social Background of Indian Nationalism' (1948), offered a Marxist analysis of economic processes under colonialism. He later critiqued the concept of the 'Welfare State', identifying its features as being positive (interventionist), democratic, and having a mixed economy. He argued that the 'Welfare State' is largely a myth as even developed capitalist states failed to provide social security for all.
Desai also wrote on the Marxist theory of the state, where he openly criticised the shortcomings of Communist states. He cited Marxist thinkers who emphasized the importance of democracy even under communism, arguing that political liberties and the rule of law must be upheld in all genuinely socialist states.
Desai's Criteria for a Welfare State
- 1
Basic Security
Does the state ensure freedom from poverty and social discrimination for all?
- 2
Income Equality
Does it redistribute income from the rich to the poor to prevent wealth concentration?
- 3
Community Needs
Is the profit motive made subservient to the real needs of the community?
- 4
Stable Development
Is development free from the cycles of economic booms and depressions?
- 5
Full Employment
Does the state provide employment for all its citizens?
A.R. Desai's test criteria to measure the actual performance of states claiming to be 'Welfare States'.
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Why did A.R. Desai consider the welfare state a 'myth'?
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08 · Explore
M.N. Srinivas and the Indian Village
M.N. Srinivas (1916-1999) shifted the focus of Indian sociology toward intensive ethnographic fieldwork in villages.
Srinivas was influenced by British structural-functionalism. His work 'Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India' established his reputation. He was a major proponent of 'village studies', arguing that the village was a vital social entity and a unifying identity in rural life. This countered the view of Louis Dumont, who believed institutions like caste were more important than the village itself.
Srinivas critiqued the British view of the Indian village as an unchanging 'little republic'. He used evidence to show that villages were never self-sufficient and were linked to wider economic and political systems. Village studies allowed sociologists to document the rapid social changes occurring in independent India as it moved toward planned development.
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How did M.N. Srinivas' view of the Indian village differ from the British colonial view?
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