01 · Explore
The Concept and Evolution of Planning
Planning is a systematic process of thinking, formulating schemes, and implementing actions to achieve specific goals. In the Indian context, it represents a shift from 'hit-and-miss' methods to structured economic development.
India initially adopted a centralised planning model after Independence, where the Planning Commission was responsible for formulating plans at the Centre, State, and district levels. This system evolved over time into a decentralised, multi-level planning approach to better address local needs.
On 1 January 2015, the Planning Commission was replaced by the NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India). This new body aims to involve State governments more deeply in economic policy-making, providing strategic and technical advice to both Central and State levels.
There are two primary approaches to planning: Sectoral and Regional. Sectoral planning focuses on developing specific parts of the economy like agriculture, irrigation, or manufacturing. Regional planning, however, addresses the uneven spatial distribution of development, aiming to reduce imbalances between different geographical areas.
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What is the primary difference between sectoral and regional planning?
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When was the NITI Aayog formed and what is its main objective?
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02 · Explore
Target Area and Target Group Planning
To address persistent regional and social disparities, the Planning Commission introduced specific approaches aimed at backward areas and disadvantaged groups.
Economic development depends on a region's resource base, but resources alone are insufficient; technology and investment are also required. When it was realized that regional imbalances were increasing despite general planning, 'target area' and 'target group' approaches were implemented.
Target area programmes include the Command Area Development Programme, Desert Development Programme, and Hill Area Development Programme. Target group programmes focus on specific populations, such as the Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers Development Agency (MFDA).
During the 8th Five Year Plan, special emphasis was placed on developing infrastructure in hill areas, tribal areas, and the North-eastern states to bridge the gap with more developed regions.
| Programme Type | Examples | Primary Focus |
|---|---|---|
| Target Area | Hill Area Development, Desert Development | Geographically backward regions |
| Target Group | SFDA, MFDA | Specific disadvantaged social/economic groups |
| Special Area | North-eastern states, Tribal areas | Infrastructure development in remote zones |
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Why are resources alone not enough for the economic development of a region?
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03 · Explore
Hill Area Development Programme (HADP)
Initiated during the Fifth Five Year Plan, HADP focuses on the unique challenges of mountainous regions.
The HADP originally covered 15 districts, including parts of present-day Uttarakhand, Assam, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu. In 1981, the National Committee on the Development of Backward Areas recommended that all hill areas above 600 meters in height, not already covered by tribal sub-plans, be treated as backward hill areas.
The strategy for these areas involves harnessing indigenous resources through the development of horticulture, plantation agriculture, animal husbandry, and small-scale industries. Plans are tailored to the specific topographical, ecological, and social conditions of the hills.
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What criteria did the National Committee recommend in 1981 for identifying backward hill areas?
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04 · Explore
Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP)
Launched during the Fourth Five Year Plan, DPAP aims to mitigate the effects of drought and provide stable employment.
Initially, the programme focused on labor-intensive civil works to provide immediate employment. Over time, the focus shifted toward ecological restoration, including irrigation projects, land development, afforestation, and grassland development.
The Planning Commission (1967) identified 67 districts as drought-prone. Later, the Irrigation Commission (1972) introduced a criterion: areas with less than 30% irrigated land are demarcated as drought-prone. Broadly, the drought-prone area in India spreads over the semi-arid and arid tracts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western Madhya Pradesh, and the Marathwada region of Maharashtra.
In South India, the programme covers the Rayalseema and Telangana plateaus of Andhra Pradesh, the Karnataka plateau, and the highlands and interior parts of Tamil Nadu. The drought-prone areas of Punjab, Haryana, and north-Rajasthan are largely protected due to the spread of irrigation.
To combat ecological degradation caused by population pressure on marginal lands, the programme now emphasizes integrated watershed development at the micro-level to balance water, soil, plants, and human/animal populations.
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What is the '30 per cent' criterion introduced by the Irrigation Commission in 1972?
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Which regions in South India are identified as drought-prone?
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05 · Explore
Case Study: ITDP in Bharmaur Region
The Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP) in Bharmaur, Himachal Pradesh, illustrates the impact of targeted planning on tribal communities.
Bharmaur is the homeland of the 'Gaddi' tribal community, who practice transhumance (seasonal migration with livestock). The region is characterized by harsh climate, high altitude (1,500m to 3,700m), and geographical isolation between the Pir Panjal and Dhaula Dhar ranges.
The river Ravi and its tributaries—the Budhil and the Tundahen—drain this territory and carve out deep gorges. These rivers divide the region into four distinct physiographic divisions: Holi, Khani, Kugti, and Tundah areas.
Designated as an ITDP in 1974 under the Fifth Five Year Plan, the project aimed to improve the quality of life and reduce the development gap between Bharmaur and the rest of Himachal Pradesh. Priority was given to transport, communication, agriculture, and social services.
The most significant achievements include a massive rise in literacy (female literacy rose from 1.88% in 1971 to 65% in 2011), improved sex ratio, and a decline in child marriage. While the economy remains based on agriculture and sheep rearing, there is a shift toward pulses and cash crops.
Impact of ITDP on Bharmaur
- 1
Infrastructure
Development of schools, healthcare, roads, and electricity, primarily along the Ravi river.
- 2
Social Change
Rapid increase in literacy and reduction in gender inequality and child marriage.
- 3
Economic Shift
Transition from subsistence foodgrains to pulses and cash crops; reduced reliance on transhumance.
The sequence of development in Bharmaur leading from basic infrastructure to significant socio-economic transformation.
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Who are the Gaddis and what is transhumance?
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Name the four physiographic divisions of the Bharmaur region.
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06 · Explore
The Concept of Sustainable Development
Development has evolved from a simple measure of economic growth to a multi-dimensional concept including equity and environmental health.
Post-World War II, development was equated with growth in GNP and per capita income. However, high growth often led to increased poverty due to unequal distribution. In the 1970s, the focus shifted to 'redistribution with growth' and 'growth and equity.'
The environmental movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s (highlighted by publications like 'The Population Bomb' and 'The Limits to Growth') raised global concerns about the impact of industrialization. This led to the formation of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED).
The WCED, headed by Gro Harlem Brundtland, released the 'Our Common Future' report in 1987. It defined sustainable development as 'development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.' This definition takes care of ecological, social, and economic aspects of development.
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How did the Brundtland Report define sustainable development?
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07 · Explore
Case Study: Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area
The Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan Canal) is a massive irrigation project designed to transform the Thar Desert.
Conceived by Kanwar Sain in 1948 and launched in 1958, the canal originates at Harike Barrage in Punjab. It covers a culturable command area of 19.63 lakh hectares. The system uses both 'flow' channels and 'lift' systems (where water is pumped against the slope).
The project was implemented in two stages. Stage-I covers Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, and northern Bikaner. Stage-II covers Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur, Nagaur, and Churu. The introduction of water has transformed the desert ecology through afforestation and pasture development.
However, intensive irrigation has led to serious environmental issues: waterlogging and soil salinity. While productivity initially soared, these problems threaten long-term sustainability. Traditional crops like bajra and jowar have been replaced by water-intensive crops like wheat, cotton, and rice.
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What are the 'twin environmental problems' caused by the Indira Gandhi Canal?
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Distinguish between the lift and flow systems of the canal.
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08 · Explore
Measures for Promoting Sustainability
To ensure the long-term viability of the Indira Gandhi Canal region, specific ecological and social measures are required.
Ecological sustainability is the highest priority. This requires strict water management policies, including protective irrigation in Stage-I and extensive irrigation/pasture development in Stage-II. Farmers are encouraged to avoid water-intensive crops and instead grow plantation crops like citrus fruits.
Technical measures include lining water courses to reduce seepage, land leveling, and the 'warabandi' system (equitable distribution of water). Areas already affected by salinity must be reclaimed through specialized treatment.
Social and economic sustainability requires providing financial support to poor land allottees and diversifying the economy beyond just agriculture and animal husbandry. Establishing linkages between villages, agro-service centers, and markets is essential for a robust economic base.
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What is the 'warabandi' system?
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Why is economic diversification necessary for the sustainability of the canal region?
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Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed page 73.