01 · Explore
A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices
The period between the eighth and eighteenth centuries in India was marked by an increasing visibility of diverse gods and goddesses in both texts and sculpture.
Historians identify two major processes at work during this era. The first was the dissemination of Brahmanical ideas through the composition of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit, making them accessible to groups previously excluded from Vedic learning, such as women and Shudras. The second process involved Brahmanas accepting and reworking the beliefs of other social categories, leading to a continuous dialogue between 'great' Sanskritic traditions and 'little' local traditions.
A prominent example of this integration is found at Puri, Odisha, where a local deity made of wood by tribal specialists was identified as Jagannatha, a form of Vishnu. Similarly, local goddess cults, often represented by ochre-smeared stones, were incorporated into the Puranic framework by identifying them as wives of major male deities like Shiva or Vishnu.
While these traditions were diverse, they often overlapped. Tantric practices, which were open to all regardless of caste or gender, influenced both Shaivism and Buddhism. Over time, these disparate beliefs would be classified under the umbrella of 'Hinduism'. The divergence between traditions is most stark when comparing Vedic and Puranic traditions; principal Vedic deities like Agni, Indra, and Soma became marginal figures, rarely visible in textual or visual representations compared to the rising importance of Vishnu, Shiva, and the Goddess.
Pause & Try
Think it through first. Writing and checking your answer is free with an account.
Question
What were the two main processes involved in the integration of cults according to historians?
Sign in to see the answer
Write your own answer and compare it with ours. It’s free.
Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed pages 141, 142.
02 · Explore
Early Traditions of Bhakti: Alvars and Nayanars
The Bhakti movement in South India was led by poet-saints who expressed intense devotion to Vishnu or Shiva in regional languages.
The Alvars (those immersed in Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) traveled across the Tamil region singing hymns. They identified specific shrines as the abodes of their deities, which later became major temple centers and pilgrimage sites. Their compositions, such as the Nalayira Divyaprabandham (often called the 'Tamil Veda'), were given a status equal to the Sanskrit Vedas.
These movements were notable for their inclusive nature. Bhaktas came from diverse backgrounds, including Brahmanas, artisans, and even those considered 'untouchable'. By including marginalized groups, these traditions posed a challenge to the orthodox Brahmanical framework that restricted access to spiritual liberation.
Women also played a significant role. Andal, a woman Alvar, expressed her love for Vishnu through her verses, while Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted extreme asceticism. Their presence and compositions challenged patriarchal norms, as they renounced social obligations without necessarily joining a formal nunnery.
| Tradition | Deity | Key Text | Meaning of Name |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alvars | Vishnu | Nalayira Divyaprabandham | Those immersed in devotion |
| Nayanars | Shiva | Tevaram | Leaders |
Pause & Try
Think it through first. Writing and checking your answer is free with an account.
Question
Why was the Nalayira Divyaprabandham significant in the context of the Tamil Veda?
Sign in to see the answer
Write your own answer and compare it with ours. It’s free.
Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed pages 143, 144, 145.
03 · Explore
The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka
In the twelfth century, a new movement emerged in Karnataka led by Basavanna, a minister in the Kalachuri court.
The followers of this movement were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga). They worshiped Shiva in the form of a linga, which men wore in a silver case over their shoulder. Those who are revered within this community include the 'jangama' or wandering monks. They believed that upon death, a devotee would be united with Shiva and not return to the world, leading them to bury their dead rather than follow the cremation rites prescribed in the Dharmashastras.
The Lingayats directly challenged Brahmanical ideas of caste and 'pollution'. They also questioned the theory of rebirth, which helped them gain a large following among marginalized groups. Furthermore, they encouraged practices like post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows, which were generally disapproved of in orthodox texts.
The teachings of this tradition are preserved in 'vachanas', which are sayings composed in Kannada by the men and women who joined the movement. These vachanas often used simple, everyday analogies to critique formal rituals and social hypocrisy.
Pause & Try
Think it through first. Writing and checking your answer is free with an account.
Question
How did the Lingayats' funerary practices differ from orthodox Brahmanical traditions?
Sign in to see the answer
Write your own answer and compare it with ours. It’s free.
Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed page 147.
04 · Explore
Islamic Traditions and the Faiths of Rulers
The advent of Islam from the seventh century onwards brought new religious and political dimensions to the subcontinent.
Muslim rulers, from the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughal Empire, were theoretically guided by the 'ulama' (scholars of Islamic studies) to rule according to the 'shari‘a'. However, the presence of a large non-Muslim population necessitated flexible policies. Rulers developed the category of 'zimmi' (protected people) for Hindus, Jains, and others, who paid a tax called 'jizya' in exchange for protection.
Many rulers, including Akbar and Aurangzeb, provided land grants and tax exemptions to various non-Muslim religious institutions. For example, Akbar issued a farman allowing the construction of a church in Khambat. Aurangzeb also expressed respect for non-Muslim leaders, as seen in his correspondence with a Jogi named Anand Nath Jio, to whom he sent offerings including a piece of cloth for a cloak and money.
The practice of Islam among the masses was characterized by the five pillars: belief in Allah and Prophet Muhammad (shahada), five daily prayers (namaz), almsgiving (zakat), fasting during Ramzan (sawm), and the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). However, these universal practices were often blended with local customs, such as the matrilocal residence of Muslim traders in Kerala or the use of local languages in devotional songs.
Sources of Shari‘a Law
- 1
Qur’an
The primary holy book containing the word of God.
- 2
Hadis
Traditions and remembered words/deeds of the Prophet.
- 3
Qiyas
Reasoning by analogy for new situations.
- 4
Ijma
Consensus of the community on legal matters.
The evolution of Shari‘a law from primary scriptures to community consensus.
Pause & Try
Think it through first. Writing and checking your answer is free with an account.
Question
What are the five pillars of Islam accepted by those who adopted the faith?
Sign in to see the answer
Write your own answer and compare it with ours. It’s free.
Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed pages 149, 150, 151.
05 · Explore
The Growth of Sufism
Sufism emerged as a mystical and ascetic movement within Islam, protesting against the growing materialism of the Caliphate.
Sufis emphasized seeking salvation through intense devotion and love for God, following the example of Prophet Muhammad. By the eleventh century, Sufism was organized around the 'khanqah' (hospice) controlled by a 'shaikh', 'pir', or 'murshid'. The master-disciple relationship was central, forming a 'silsila' (chain) that traced a spiritual genealogy back to the Prophet.
When a shaikh died, his tomb or 'dargah' became a center of pilgrimage ('ziyarat'). Devotees believed that the saint, as a 'wali' (friend of God), was united with the Divine in death and could bestow 'barakat' (spiritual grace) upon them. This led to the celebration of the 'urs' (literally meaning marriage), signifying the union of the soul with God.
Sufis were divided into two broad categories regarding their relationship with Islamic law: 'ba-shari‘a', who complied with the shari‘a, and 'be-shari‘a', who deliberately defied it through extreme asceticism and mendicancy (such as the Qalandars or Malangs).
Pause & Try
Think it through first. Writing and checking your answer is free with an account.
Question
What is the literal meaning of 'silsila' and what does it signify in Sufism?
Sign in to see the answer
Write your own answer and compare it with ours. It’s free.
Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed pages 153, 154.
06 · Explore
The Chishtis in the Subcontinent
Among the Sufi orders that migrated to India, the Chishtis were the most influential due to their successful adaptation to local traditions.
The Chishti 'khanqah', such as that of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, was a vibrant social center. It included a 'jama’at khana' (hall) where family, disciples, and visitors lived and prayed. An open kitchen ('langar') run on 'futuh' (unasked-for charity) served people from all walks of life, including Hindu jogis and qalandars.
Chishti devotionalism centered on 'ziyarat' and 'sama‘' (mystical music). The shrine of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, known as 'Gharib Nawaz', became exceptionally popular, attracting even Mughal emperors like Akbar, who visited it fourteen times. The use of music, particularly 'qawwali' introduced by Amir Khusrau, helped evoke divine ecstasy and bridge the gap with local devotional practices.
The Chishtis also adopted local languages for communication. In Delhi, those associated with the Chishti silsila conversed in 'Hindavi', the language of the people. Poets like Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote 'masnavis' (long poems) like the Padmavat to express divine love through allegories of human romance. In the Deccan, short poems called 'lurinama' (lullabies) were composed in Dakhani, often sung by women during household chores.
Pause & Try
Think it through first. Writing and checking your answer is free with an account.
Question
How did the Chishtis maintain their moral authority in relation to the state?
Sign in to see the answer
Write your own answer and compare it with ours. It’s free.
Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed pages 154, 155, 156, 157, 158.
07 · Explore
New Devotional Paths: Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak
In Northern India, poet-saints like Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak challenged entrenched religious institutions through their unique spiritual messages.
Kabir (c. 14th-15th centuries) is a seminal figure whose verses are preserved in traditions like the Kabir Bijak and Kabir Granthavali. He described the Ultimate Reality using terms from both Islam (Allah, Hazrat, Pir) and Vedantic traditions (Alakh, Nirakar, Brahman). His 'ulatbansi' (upside-down sayings) were designed to challenge ordinary perceptions and point toward mystical truths.
Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) advocated 'nirguna bhakti', firmly rejecting external rituals like sacrifices, image worship, and scripturalism. He emphasized the 'rab' (Absolute) who has no gender or form, and proposed connecting to the Divine through the repetition of the Divine Name. He organized his followers into a 'sangat' (community) for congregational worship.
After Guru Nanak, his teachings were consolidated by his successors. The fifth preceptor, Guru Arjan, compiled Baba Guru Nanak’s hymns along with those of his four successors and other religious poets like Baba Farid, Ravidas (also known as Raidas), and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib. Later, the tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, established the 'Khalsa Panth', defining the community as both a socio-religious and military force with distinct symbols.
Pause & Try
Think it through first. Writing and checking your answer is free with an account.
Question
What was the 'ulatbansi' style used by Kabir?
Sign in to see the answer
Write your own answer and compare it with ours. It’s free.
Sign inNew here? Sign up freeQuestion
How did Baba Guru Nanak propose to connect with the Divine?
Sign in to see the answer
Write your own answer and compare it with ours. It’s free.
Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed pages 161, 162, 163, 164.
08 · Explore
Mirabai and Reconstructing Religious Histories
Mirabai represents the female voice in the Bhakti tradition, while historians use various sources to reconstruct these complex religious pasts.
Mirabai (c. 15th-16th centuries) was a Rajput princess who defied her family to worship Krishna as her lover. She rejected the role of a traditional wife and mother, wandering as a saint and composing emotional 'bhajans'. Her choice of Raidas, a leather worker, as her preceptor indicated her defiance of caste norms. Her songs remain popular today, especially among the poor and 'low caste' in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Historians reconstruct these traditions using a variety of sources: architecture (temples and mosques), sculpture, and a wide range of texts. For Sufism, these include 'Malfuzat' (conversations of saints), 'Maktubat' (letters), and 'Tazkiras' (biographical accounts). Each genre requires specific skills to interpret, as they often contain hagiographic elements or 'fantastic' details intended to glorify spiritual lineages.
The challenge for historians is that these traditions are 'lived' beliefs. While contemporary practices allow for comparisons with the past, there is often a resistance to the idea that these traditions have changed over time. Investigations must be conducted with sensitivity to the dynamic nature of religious evolution.
Pause & Try
Think it through first. Writing and checking your answer is free with an account.
Question
What are 'Malfuzat' and why are they important to historians?
Sign in to see the answer
Write your own answer and compare it with ours. It’s free.
Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed pages 164, 165, 166, 167.