Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation Class 12 Notes

Archaeo-botanists have reconstructed Harappan diets by studying charred grains and seeds. Their findings show that Harappans consumed wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, and sesame. Millets have been found at sites in Gujarat, while rice remains are relatively rare. Animal products were also vital; bones of domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig suggest a pastoral component to their economy.

Agricultural practices are inferred from various artefacts. Terracotta models of the plough found at Banawali and Cholistan, along with a ploughed field discovered at Kalibangan, prove that the Harappans used oxen for tilling. The Kalibangan field showed two sets of furrows at right angles, indicating that two different crops were likely grown together simultaneously.

Since many Harappan sites are located in semi-arid regions, irrigation was essential. Traces of canals have been found at Shortughai in Afghanistan. Additionally, water drawn from wells and stored in large masonry reservoirs, like the one found at Dholavira, was used to support farming activities.

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NCERT reference: chapter PDF pages 2, 3, 4.

The settlement was divided into two distinct sections: the Citadel and the Lower Town. The Citadel was a smaller, higher area built on mud-brick platforms and was physically walled off. It contained large structures likely used for public purposes. The Lower Town was much larger and served as the residential area. It was also walled, and many buildings were constructed on platforms that required massive amounts of mobilised labour.

Planning is evident in the standardised ratio of bricks used across all settlements, where the length and breadth were four times and twice the height, respectively. Furthermore, the streets and drains were laid out first in a 'grid' pattern, with houses built along them later. This ensured that every house had at least one wall along a street to allow domestic waste water to flow into the street drains.

The drainage system was remarkably complete. Main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and covered with loose bricks or limestone for easy cleaning. Drainage systems were not unique to larger cities; they were found in smaller settlements as well. For example, at Lothal, while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made of burnt bricks.

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How did the 'grid' pattern of streets facilitate the Harappan drainage system?

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NCERT reference: chapter PDF pages 5, 6.

One of the most significant structures on the Citadel is the Warehouse. While its upper wooden portions decayed long ago, its massive brick foundations remain. Another iconic structure is the Great Bath, a large rectangular tank situated in a courtyard. It was made watertight using bricks set on edge and a mortar of gypsum, reflecting advanced engineering skills.

The Great Bath featured two flights of steps (north and south) and was surrounded by a corridor on all four sides. Rooms were located on three sides, one containing a large well to supply water. The uniqueness of this structure, combined with its location amongst other distinctive buildings on the Citadel, suggests it was used for special ritual baths.

Nearby, a building with eight bathrooms—four on each side of a corridor—further emphasizes the Harappan focus on hygiene and water management. Each bathroom had drains connecting to a central channel running along the corridor.

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What features of the Great Bath suggest it was used for ritual purposes?

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NCERT reference: chapter PDF page 8.

In Harappan burials, the dead were generally laid in pits. While some pits were simple, others were lined with bricks, which might indicate social status. Graves often contained pottery and ornaments, suggesting a belief in the afterlife. However, unlike the contemporary pyramids of Egypt, Harappan burials rarely contained enormous wealth, indicating that they did not generally believe in burying precious things with the dead.

Artefacts are classified into two categories: 'utilitarian' and 'luxuries'. Utilitarian objects are items of daily use made of ordinary materials like stone or clay (e.g., querns, pottery, needles). Luxuries are rare objects made from costly, non-local materials or using complicated technologies. For example, miniature pots of faience, likely used for perfumes, are found mostly in large cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

The distribution of these items reveals a pattern: luxury goods are concentrated in large urban centres and are almost absent from smaller settlements like Kalibangan. Gold was also extremely rare and has been found only in hoards, suggesting it was highly precious.

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What is the difference between utilitarian and luxury artefacts in the Harappan context?

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NCERT reference: chapter PDF pages 9, 10.

Chanhudaro was a tiny settlement (less than 7 hectares) compared to Mohenjodaro, but it was a major centre for bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, and seal-making. Beads were made from a variety of materials: semi-precious stones like carnelian and jasper, metals like copper and gold, and materials like faience and terracotta.

The techniques for bead-making varied by material. Steatite, being a soft stone, was easily worked and even moulded from a paste. Harder stones were chipped into rough shapes and then finely flaked, ground, polished, and drilled. Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira.

Archaeologists identify production centres by looking for raw materials (stone nodules, copper ore), tools, unfinished objects, and waste material. Waste is often the best indicator; for instance, large pieces of discarded shell or stone at a site clearly mark it as a place of manufacture.

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NCERT reference: chapter PDF pages 10, 11, 12.

While clay was local, materials like stone, timber, and metal had to be brought from outside the alluvial plains. They established settlements like Nageshwar and Balakot near the coast for shell. Shortughai in Afghanistan was located near the best source of lapis lazuli, a highly valued blue stone. Lothal provided access to carnelian from Gujarat and steatite from Rajasthan.

Another strategy involved sending expeditions to resource-rich areas. The Khetri region of Rajasthan was a source for copper, while South India provided gold. These expeditions established contact with local communities, such as the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture in Rajasthan, which supplied copper to the Harappans.

Long-distance trade also extended to West Asia. Chemical analysis shows that Omani copper and Harappan artefacts both contain traces of nickel, suggesting a common origin. Mesopotamian texts mention trade with 'Meluhha' (likely the Harappan region), referring to it as a land of seafarers and a source of carnelian, gold, and wood.

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Which Harappan site was a source for Lapis Lazuli and where was it located?

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NCERT reference: chapter PDF pages 12, 13, 14.

Seals and sealings were used to secure goods during long-distance transport. A bag's tie was covered with wet clay and pressed with a seal; if the sealing remained intact, it proved the contents hadn't been tampered with. The seal also identified the sender. Harappan seals often featured an animal motif and a line of writing.

The Harappan script remains 'enigmatic' because it is still undeciphered. It was not alphabetical, as it contains between 375 and 400 signs. It was written from right to left, evidenced by the spacing on the seals. Writing has been found on a wide variety of objects, including tools, jewellery, and even a large signboard at Dholavira.

Trade used standardised weights, usually cubical and made of chert. The lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32). The higher denominations followed the decimal system (160, 200, 320, 640, etc.). Small weights were probably used for jewellery and beads.

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NCERT reference: chapter PDF pages 15, 16.

The extraordinary uniformity in pottery, seals, weights, and the standardised ratio of bricks across vast distances indicates complex, coordinated decision-making. Furthermore, the mobilisation of labour for massive projects like the walls of Mohenjodaro or the platforms at Harappa points to an organised leadership.

Archaeological records offer no clear answers about who held power. A large building at Mohenjodaro was called a 'palace', but no royal treasures were found. A stone statue was named the 'priest-king' based on Mesopotamian parallels, but we don't know if ritual leaders held political power.

Opinions among archaeologists vary. Some believe Harappan society had no single ruler and everyone was equal. Others suggest there were multiple rulers for different cities. A third group argues for a single state, citing the planned settlements and standardised artefacts as evidence of a unified administration.

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NCERT reference: chapter PDF pages 16, 17.

Evidence shows that by c. 1800 BCE, most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been abandoned. In the remaining sites, distinctive artefacts like weights, seals, and special beads vanished. Writing and long-distance trade also ceased. House construction became less sophisticated, and large public structures were no longer built. This period is known as the 'Late Harappan' or 'successor culture'.

Several causes have been proposed for this collapse, including climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, or the drying up of rivers. While these might explain the decline of specific settlements, they don't fully account for the collapse of the entire civilisation. It is likely that the central unifying element—the Harappan state—came to an end.

The chapter’s Rakhigarhi box presents an interpretation of genetic continuity. Genetic findings must be understood within their sample sizes and methods. Ancestry shared with later populations, or the absence of an ancestry component in an ancient sample, does not by itself establish why cities declined or rule out subsequent migration. Evaluate this box alongside archaeological evidence; it is not proof that a single cause explains the civilisation’s end.

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NCERT reference: chapter PDF pages 17, 18.

Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the ASI, missed the significance of Harappa because he relied on Chinese Buddhist accounts from a much later period. He mistakenly thought Indian history began in the Ganga valley. It was only in the 1920s, when Daya Ram Sahni and Rakhal Das Banerji found seals at Harappa and Mohenjodaro, that the true antiquity of the site was realised.

In 1924, John Marshall announced the discovery of the Indus Civilisation to the world. However, Marshall excavated in horizontal units, which mixed up artefacts from different time layers. R.E.M. Wheeler later corrected this by introducing 'stratigraphy'—the study of layers—which allowed for a more accurate chronological sequence of the finds.

Interpreting religious practices is particularly difficult. Archaeologists often look for parallels in later traditions. For example, female figurines are called 'mother goddesses', and a figure on a seal in a yogic posture is called 'proto-Shiva'. However, these interpretations remain speculative as the script cannot be read to confirm these beliefs.

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NCERT reference: chapter PDF pages 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.