01 · Explore
Caste in the Past: Varna and Jati
Caste is an ancient social institution uniquely associated with the Indian subcontinent, though it has influenced non-Hindu communities like Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs.
The English word 'caste' originates from the Portuguese 'casta', meaning pure breed. In Indian languages, it is understood through two distinct concepts: varna and jati. Varna refers to a four-fold division of society—Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra—which excludes the 'outcastes' or panchamas. Jati is a more specific, regional term referring to thousands of castes and sub-castes. It is a generic term referring to species or kinds of anything, ranging from inanimate objects to plants, animals, and human beings.
Historically, the caste system was not always as rigid as it is today. In the late Vedic period (900–500 BC), it was primarily a varna system where movement across categories was possible. It only became a rigid, birth-determined institution in the post-Vedic period. The system is theoretically built on two principles: difference (separation between groups) and hierarchy (ordering groups from highest to lowest).
The hierarchy is maintained through the concepts of 'purity' and 'pollution'. Ritual purity is associated with the sacred, while pollution is linked to things distant from the sacred. This ritual status often aligns with material power, where those in economic or military power typically hold higher caste status. Although it is an institution characteristic of Hindu society, caste has spread to the major non-Hindu communities of the Indian sub-continent, especially Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs.
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What is the primary difference between the varna and jati classifications?
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How do the concepts of 'purity' and 'pollution' maintain the caste hierarchy?
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Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed pages 36, 37, 38.
02 · Explore
Colonialism and the Transformation of Caste
The colonial period (1800–1947) fundamentally reshaped the institution of caste through administrative interventions and legal recognition.
British administrators sought to understand caste to govern efficiently, leading to methodical surveys and the decennial census starting in 1881. The 1901 Census, directed by Herbert Risley, attempted to officially record the social hierarchy. This caused various castes to petition for higher ranks, making previously fluid identities more rigid and self-conscious.
The Government of India Act of 1935 provided legal recognition to 'Scheduled Castes' and 'Scheduled Tribes'. These were lists of 'depressed classes' at the bottom of the hierarchy who suffered discrimination, including untouchability, and were marked for special state treatment.
Social reformers also challenged the system during this era. Leaders like Jotirao Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873 to secure rights for low-caste people, while Savitri Bai Phule opened the first school for girls in Pune. In the South, Periyar and Sri Narayana Guru led movements for equality and rationalism.
Evolution of Caste Identity under Colonialism
- 1
Administrative Surveys
British officials collect 'customs and manners' data to understand local populations.
- 2
1901 Census
Herbert Risley attempts to rank castes officially, leading to competitive petitions for status.
- 3
Identity Rigidification
Fluid regional identities become fixed as they are recorded in official government records.
- 4
Legal Scheduling
The 1935 Act creates 'Scheduled' categories for tribes and castes needing state protection.
The process by which colonial administration transformed caste from a fluid social practice into a rigid, legally defined category.
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Why was the 1901 Census significant for the caste system?
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03 · Explore
Caste in the Present: Resilience and Politics
After 1947, the Indian state committed to abolishing caste distinctions in public life, yet the institution remains resilient in private and political spheres.
The Constitution of India explicitly abolished caste-based discrimination. However, the state was often unable to undermine the economic basis of caste inequality. While urbanisation and modern industry created jobs without caste rules, recruitment often remained kinship-based. For example, in the textile mills of Mumbai, middlemen frequently recruited workers from their own castes.
In contemporary India, caste has become 'invisible' for the urban upper-caste middle class. Because they benefited from early access to education and public sector jobs, they often view their success as purely merit-based, ignoring the 'caste capital' that helped them. In contrast, for Scheduled Castes and Tribes, caste remains highly 'visible' as it is their primary basis for collective identity and accessing state support like reservations.
Politics has become a major arena for caste. Since the 1980s, explicitly caste-based political parties have emerged. Sociologist M.N. Srinivas coined the term 'Dominant Caste' to describe intermediate castes (like the Yadavs of Bihar or Jats of Punjab) who gained land rights after Independence and used their large numbers to gain political power.
Sanskritisation
Lower Caste Rituals → Adoption of Upper Caste Practices → Status Claim
A process defined by M.N. Srinivas where a lower or middle caste attempts to raise its social status by adopting the ritual, domestic, and social practices of a higher-status caste.
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What is a 'Dominant Caste'?
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Why does caste seem 'invisible' to the urban upper class?
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04 · Explore
Tribal Communities: Traits and Classifications
Tribes are among the oldest inhabitants of India, traditionally defined by what they lack: a written text, a formal state, or sharp class divisions.
Tribes are classified by 'permanent' and 'acquired' traits. Permanent traits include region, language, physical characteristics, and ecological habitat. About 85% of the tribal population lives in 'middle India' (from Gujarat to Odisha), while 15% live in the North East. Linguistically, they are divided into four groups: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austric, and Tibeto-Burman.
In physical-racial terms, tribes are classified under the Negrito, Australoid, Mongoloid, Dravidian, and Aryan categories. Acquired traits are based on livelihood and the degree of assimilation into Hindu society. Livelihoods range from hunting and gathering to industrial work. According to the 2011 Census, the tribal population (Scheduled Tribes) accounts for 8.6% of India's total population, or approximately 104 million people.
The biggest tribes in India include the Gonds, Bhils, Santhals, Oraons, Minas, Bodos, and Mundas, each numbering over a million. While some are small, like certain Andamanese islanders with fewer than a hundred members, the larger groups are spread over extensive territories.
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What percentage of India's population was tribal according to the 2011 Census?
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05 · Explore
National Development and Tribal Identity
The interaction between tribal communities and the modern state has been marked by displacement and the emergence of new forms of identity.
National development, especially the building of dams, mines, and factories, has often occurred in mineral-rich tribal areas. This has led to the dispossession of tribal lands and the loss of forests. Tribals have paid a disproportionate price for national progress, often being displaced without adequate compensation.
In states like Jharkhand and Tripura, heavy in-migration of non-tribals has diluted the tribal share of the population. This 'forced incorporation' into the mainstream has led many tribal identities to center on resistance and opposition to the non-tribal world.
A significant modern development is the emergence of a tribal middle class, particularly in the North East. This class, created through education and reservation policies, now leads the assertion of tribal identity, focusing on issues of culture, tradition, and control over resources.
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Why is the emergence of a tribal middle class significant?
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How has 'national development' impacted tribal communities?
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06 · Explore
Family and Kinship: Diversity and Change
The family is a fundamental social institution that varies significantly in structure and is deeply linked to other social spheres.
Families are generally classified as nuclear (one set of parents and children) or extended (multiple generations or couples living together). While the 'joint family' is often seen as the standard Indian form, it was historically confined to certain regions and sections of society. As I.P. Desai observes, the expression 'joint family' is not a translation of any Indian word; rather, Indian languages use equivalents or translations of the English term.
Family structures are also defined by residence and inheritance. In patrilocal societies, the couple lives with the man's parents; in matrilocal societies, they live with the woman's parents. Similarly, inheritance can be patrilineal (father to son) or matrilineal (mother to daughter).
It is important to distinguish between matriliny and matriarchy. Matriliny refers to inheritance through the female line, but it does not necessarily mean women hold power. Matriarchy, where women exercise dominant authority, is a theoretical concept with no confirmed historical evidence. Even in matrilineal societies, men often remain the primary decision-makers in public affairs.
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What is the difference between matriliny and matriarchy?
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How can external social changes affect family structure?
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Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed pages 48, 49, 50.