01 · Explore
Understanding Mass Media and its Social Role
Mass media encompasses various forms of communication that reach vast audiences, including television, newspapers, radio, and the internet.
Mass media is referred to as 'mass' because it reaches a large number of people simultaneously. In contemporary India, it is an inseparable part of daily life, influencing how people work, spend leisure time, and interact with one another. From checking mobile phones for missed calls to discussing cricket matches seen on television, media facilitates social connection across urban and rural divides.
Sociologically, the structure and content of mass media are shaped by economic, political, and socio-cultural contexts. The relationship between media and society is dialectical, meaning they influence each other. For example, while the state used media for national development in the early decades after independence, the post-1990 era of globalisation saw the market take a leading role in shaping media content.
Mass communication differs from other forms of communication because it requires a formal structural organisation. This involves large-scale capital, production facilities, and management demands. Consequently, the state or large market players often control the functioning of mass media, leading to issues like the 'digital divide' where access varies across different social groups.
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Why is the relationship between mass media and society described as 'dialectical'?
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02 · Explore
The Beginnings of Modern Mass Media
The development of the printing press marked the start of modern mass media, fundamentally changing how people perceived their community and nation.
Modern printing technology was first developed by Johann Gutenberg in 1440. Initially restricted to religious books and literate elites, the print industry grew during the Industrial Revolution. By the mid-19th century, improvements in technology and literacy allowed newspapers to reach a mass audience, connecting people across different regions through shared news.
Scholar Benedict Anderson argued that print media helped the growth of nationalism by creating an 'imagined community'. People who would never meet each other felt a sense of togetherness because they read the same stories and shared a common language of news. In India, 19th-century social reformers used newspapers to debate social issues, and the nationalist press later became a vital tool in the struggle against British colonialism.
The colonial state often tried to suppress this 'nationalist press' through censorship, such as during the Ilbert Bill agitation in 1883. Despite this, newspapers like Kesari and Amrita Bazar Patrika continued to advocate for independence. While radio was state-owned and strictly controlled, the print media remained a space for diverse opinions on the idea of a 'free India'.
| Publication | Language/Region | Year Founded |
|---|---|---|
| Sambad-Kaumudi | Bengali | 1821 |
| Mirat-Ul-Akbar | Persian | 1822 |
| Bombay Samachar | Gujarati | 1822 |
| Shome Prakash | Bengali | 1858 |
| Times of India | Bombay | 1861 |
| The Statesman | Calcutta | 1875 |
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What did Benedict Anderson mean by the term 'imagined community'?
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Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed pages 92, 93.
03 · Explore
Mass Media in Independent India: The Development Era
After 1947, the Indian government viewed mass media as a partner in nation-building and a watchdog of democracy.
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru expected the media to spread the spirit of self-reliance and national development. The media was encouraged to fight social evils like untouchability and child marriage while promoting a rational, scientific ethos. The government's Films Division produced newsreels and documentaries that were mandatory screenings in movie theatres to document the state-directed development process.
Radio, which matured during World War II, became a major public broadcasting system. At independence, India had only six radio stations in major cities. The government prioritised expanding this infrastructure to state capitals and border areas. To make radio more accessible, the 'transistor revolution' of the 1960s was crucial, as it provided low-cost, battery-operated mobile sets.
Television was introduced experimentally in 1959 to promote rural development. A significant milestone was the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) in 1975-76, which beamed educational content directly to 2,400 villages. However, by the 1980s, television began to commercialise, shifting its focus toward the urban consuming class through entertainment and advertisements.
Evolution of All India Radio (AIR)
- 1
1920s-1940s
Commenced via amateur 'ham' clubs; matured into a public system during WWII.
- 2
1947
Six stations in metropolitan cities serving 280,000 receiver sets.
- 3
1957
Acquisition of Vividh Bharati, which became a popular entertainment and ad channel.
- 4
1960s-1970s
Transistor revolution increases accessibility; AIR supports the Green Revolution.
- 5
Modern Era
Grown to 480 stations covering 99% of the population in 24 languages.
The growth of AIR from a colonial propaganda tool to a massive developmental and entertainment network.
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How did the transistor revolution change radio listenership in India?
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04 · Explore
Television and the Rise of the Soap Opera
The 1980s marked a turning point for Indian television with the introduction of color broadcasting and popular serials.
The 1982 Asian Games in Delhi brought color television to India, leading to a rapid expansion of the national network. This era saw the rise of indigenous soap operas like 'Hum Log' (1984-85), which used an 'entertainment-education' strategy. It addressed social themes like gender equality and family size, ending each episode with a summary of educational lessons by actor Ashok Kumar.
The popularity of 'Hum Log' was followed by 'Buniyaad' and the massive success of religious epics like 'Ramayana' and 'Mahabharata'. These programs attracted huge advertising revenues, signaling the commercialisation of Doordarshan. For example, 'Hum Log' helped promote Maggi 2-Minute noodles, showing the power of television commercials to introduce new consumer products to the Indian public.
By 2016, India had the world's second-largest TV market after China. According to industry estimates in March 2016, out of 2,841 million households, approximately 1,811 million have television sets, which provide services via cable TV, DTH, and IPTV, in addition to Doordarshan's terrestrial network.
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What was unique about the 'Hum Log' epilogue?
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05 · Explore
Globalisation and the Indian Language Newspaper Revolution
Contrary to global trends where print is declining, India has experienced a massive boom in regional language newspapers.
While English newspapers are often called 'national dailies', vernacular or Indian language newspapers have seen the most significant growth. Print publications in the country saw an increase in average daily circulation of 23.7 million copies between 2006 and 2016. From 39.1 million in 2006, the average number of copies circulated daily grew to 62.8 million by 2016.
Indian language newspapers like 'Malayala Manorama' and 'Eenadu' pioneered 'local news' by introducing district and block-level editions. They use simplified, colloquial language to reach the rural hinterland. To compete with electronic media, these papers have adopted advanced printing technologies, colorful supplements, and door-to-door marketing strategies.
Technology has also transformed newspaper production. Since the late 1980s, the process has become fully automated, eliminating paper in the newsroom. Reporters now use digital recorders, laptops, and satellite phones, which has increased the speed of news and allowed for multiple editions to be published from limited print centers.
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Why did many fear the decline of print media, and why did it actually grow in India?
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06 · Explore
The Explosion of Private Satellite Television
The early 1990s saw the end of the state monopoly on television with the arrival of private and transnational channels.
The 1991 Gulf War popularised CNN in India, and the launch of Star-TV the same year signaled the arrival of private satellite channels. By 1992, Zee TV began beaming Hindi entertainment. This led to a staggering growth: from one state channel in 1991 to nearly 900 private networks by 2020. Regional language channels like Sun-TV and Asianet also flourished, catering to specific linguistic groups.
Transnational companies like Sony and Star TV initially worried critics about their impact on Indian culture. However, these channels soon realized that 'localisation' was the key to success. They began broadcasting Hindi films, producing Hindi content (like Star Plus becoming a Hindi channel in 1999), and even dubbing US programs into Indian languages to attract younger audiences.
The 24x7 news cycle has made news more immediate and democratic, but it has also led to concerns about 'infotainment'—a mix of information and entertainment. Channels often compete for higher viewership through sensational live coverage, such as the 50-hour rescue of the child Prince from a borewell in 2006, which some critics viewed as an intrusion into personal lives.
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What strategy did transnational channels use to gain Indian audiences?
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Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed pages 102, 103, 104.
07 · Explore
The FM Revolution and Community Radio
The advent of private FM stations in 2002 revitalised radio as a medium for entertainment and local communication.
Private FM stations are prohibited from broadcasting political news, so they specialise in popular music and niche entertainment. Many of these stations, like Radio Mirchi or Red FM, belong to large media conglomerates. They are particularly popular among young urban professionals and students, often using a lively, informal style to retain listeners.
Despite the dominance of large networks, there is a growing potential for community-owned radio. A remarkable example is Raghav Mahato's 'Raghav FM' in Bihar. Using a homemade transmission kit costing only 50 rupees, he ran a station out of a repair shop that served a 20 km radius. He played local Bhojpuri songs and broadcast public interest messages on HIV and polio, proving the local need for culturally relevant media.
The demand for local news and culture is driving a trend where global networks are being supplemented by local radio. When Raghav was told his station was illegal, he initially shut it down, but resumed services after local villagers thronged his shack and persuaded him to continue. This highlighted the gap between formal media structures and the needs of the rural poor.
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What is the main restriction on private FM channels in India?
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What does the story of Raghav FM demonstrate about media?
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Sign inNew here? Sign up freeNCERT reference: printed pages 104, 105, 106.